Accessed July 25, 2018. 2013;118:1-9. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53501-6.00001-9. December 9, 2017. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320316.php. Some consequentialists even argue that alienation is necessary for social progress. Rule-consequentialism avoids a number of problems which have caused trouble to act-consequentialists. Stud Health Technol Inform. Non-consequentialism, the person as an end-in-itself, and the significance of status. Consequentialists may try to respond by arguing that alienation and taking an impersonal standpoint can be a virtue, but this seems a high price to pay if the agent is expected to disregard her most fundamental relationships, leaving her deeply unhappy. FOIA Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can be difficult, or even impossible, to know what the result of an action will be ahead of time. In order to meet these challenges effectively, we need to identify how nurses contribute the resolution of these dilemmas. The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008, for example, does not apply to FRT for genetic diagnosis, as FRT does not fit GINAs definition of genetic testing or genetic information.39 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which protects people with disabilities from discrimination in public life (eg, schools or employment),40 would also likely not apply to FRT used for diagnostic purposes if the conditions diagnosed are currently unexpressed. May 17, 2017. https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/. One potential issue is that of liability. This button displays the currently selected search type. We will describe some examples of the influence of consequentialism over current medical law. Facial recognition software success rates for the identification of 3D surface reconstructed facial images: implications for patient privacy and security. So, if Oliver had a wide network of adoring cat lovers because of his friendly, playful nature, unlike Benjy who prefers a life of peaceful solitude I should save Oliver as this would cause the least pain and produce the most pleasure for the people that know him. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. The committee evaluates the impact of relationships on health care. Furthermore, consumer-centred healthcare is becoming heavily reliant on digital technology. More specifically, it protects the privacy of biometric data, including full-face photographs and any comparable images, which are directly related to an individual.37 Thus, facial images used for FRT health applications would be protected by HIPAA.38 Entities covered by HIPAA, including health care organizations, clinicians, and third-party business associates, would need to comply with HIPAA regulations regarding the use and disclosure of protected health information.38 However, clinicians should advise patients that there may be limited protections for storing and sharing data when using a consumer FRT tool. Accessed July 25, 2018. Robert M. Taylor, in Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 2013 Deontology. But in Jims case his pain at killing one person is a relatively minor consideration when the very lives of nineteen others (and the happiness of their families and friends) is at stake. Epub 2022 Apr 9. Clipping is a handy way to collect important slides you want to go back to later. One way is by using ethical concepts to shed light on everyday practice. However, having evolved from a set of Christian values and principles, it retains certain deontological characteristics. Consequentialism is a type of normative ethical theory which states that the moral quality of an action is completely determined by its consequences, and nothing else. The use of FRT in health care suggests the importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships. 2022 Jan 6;10(1):12. doi: 10.3390/pharmacy10010012. Her research focuses on neuroethics as well as the ethics of digital health technology and machine learning with a focus on mental health issues and special populations. This basic form of consequentialism holds an action as ethical if and only if it produces more beneficial/pleasure-causing outcomes than negative/pain-causing ones. National Library of Medicine Updated October 19, 2016. Protecting your patients interests in the era of big data, artificial intelligence, and predictive analytics. Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, Pub L No. Among the most prominent approaches to ethics within philosophy is a highly influential position known as consequentialism. To do so, lets look at a current example of limited resources, such as ventilators, in hospitals during the Covid-19 outbreak and how we may decide which patients should be allocated these resources. Equality is certainly one of the key principles behind Utilitarian philosophy. Abbasinia M, Norouzadeh R, Adib-Hajbaghery M, Nasiri MA, Sharifipour E, Koohpaei A, Eskandari N, Aghaie B. First, as it is the general performance of all people that is collectively coordinated to promote the overall good, rule-consequentialism may distribute a fair share of the burden to all participants in society (Mulgan 2001, p. 54). and transmitted securely. Clinical Informatics News. http://arxiv.org/abs/1403.0485. Reimagining Medical Education in the Age of AI, Steven A. Wartman, MD, PhD and C. Donald Combs, PhD. Discussion: According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. Decision-making; ethics of care; interprofessional working; moral dissonance; moral distress; nursepatient relationships; professional ethics; qualitative research; virtue ethics. As FRT becomes capable of detecting a wider range of health conditions, such as behavioral24 or developmental disorders,25 health care organizations and software developers will need to decide which types of analyses should be included in a FRT system and the conditions under which patients might need to be informed of incidental findings. 2007;2(1):26. VAD can have numerous negative health effects such as dryness of the eye that can lead to blindness if untreated, reduced immune system response, and an increase in the severity and mortality risk of infections. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Before Imagine you are in your local park feeding the ducks on the pond when you hear a loud splash; a child has fallen into the pond and is struggling to swim. FRT systems can store data as a complete facial image or as a facial template.34 Facial templates are considered biometric data and thus personally identifiable information.35 The idea that a photo can reveal private health information is relatively new, and privacy regulations and practices are still catching up. In: Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 28th Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE); May 3-6, 2015; Halifax, Canada:1199-1202. This helps prevent a surge of infected patients in the existing healthcare facilities. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. 497 - 516. MeSH Agera y Arcas B, Todorov A, Mitchell M. Do algorithms reveal sexual orientation or just expose our stereotypes? Bookshelf Aggregative Consequentialism = which consequences are best is some function of the values of parts of those consequences (as opposed to rankings of whole worlds or sets of consequences). Researchers flag up facial recognition racial bias [news]. Consequentialism is the theory in moral philosophy that says our actions should aim at producing the best consequences. Articles, podcasts, videos, research & courses tackling the issues that matter. No one desires the strife of war in life, but it is sometimes necessary and morally justified to engage in war. Consequentialism's definition merely. Examining hospital staff members' preferences for allocating a ventilator to a COVID-19 patient with and without Alzheimer's disease. Accessed July 24, 2018. Computer-based recognition of dysmorphic faces. Consequentialism is a normative ethics theory whereby the ends justify the means; in other words, the consequence of an action justifies the moral acceptability of an action of the means taken to reach that end. For example, if FRT diagnostic software develops to the point that it is used not just to augment but to replace a physicians judgment, ethical and legal questions may arise regarding which entity appropriately has liability.41 Or if FRT is used to monitor compliance, track patients whereabouts, or assist in other kinds of surveillance, patients trust in physicians could be eroded, undermining the therapeutic alliance. According to consequentialism, you should always strive to bring about good consequences, rather than simply obeying an arbitrary set of ethical rules. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies moral judgments are supposed to be a matter of simple consequentialism: you add up how much suffering you think is caused by an action and balance it against the amount of good. An objective measure of whether something is good or bad, and by how much. Geriatr Nurs. Consequentialism in scenario. and transmitted securely. PMC An interpretive exploratory study was undertaken, 11 registered acute care nurses working in a district general hospital in England were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews. Furthermore, whilst the consequentialist can agree that the individual agents integrity should not be ignored, as Williams explains, (h)is own substantial projects and commitments come into it, but only as one lot among others. (Ethics, 1994) As our integrity is one among many others and consequentialism expects us all to take an impersonal standpoint, it would follow that everyone would need to disregard their personal commitments, which is likely to lead in turn to overall unhappiness, a problem for a moral theory with hedonistic tendencies. It is not unreasonable to say that in this example you should pause your duck feeding and jump in to save the child. 1-2.) Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. 2022 Jul;57(4):852-864. doi: 10.1111/1460-6984.12725. This chapter outlines core characteristics of Utilitarianism and explores them with regard to their significance in healthcare settings. So whilst both acts are morally abhorrent, the consequentialist will inevitably say that if these are the only options available then not only should we choose to massacre seven million, but that it would be right to do so. Even if the damage to Jims integrity is taken into account, there is another problem: the consequentialist would regard Jims killing another person not merely as preferable, but as morally required. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. You can read four articles free per month. Their justification is that this action would produce the most overall welfare.. What matters in this example is saving the highest number of lives, and how this is attained is unimportant. Facial shape analysis identifies valid cues to aspects of physiological health in Caucasian, Asian, and African populations. 2021 Sep 17;18(18):9786. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18189786. If Jim accepts, then as a special mark of the occasion, the other Indians will be let off. New York, NY: New York University Press; 2011. . Again, consequentialism forces us to put our commitments second, regardless of how strongly we are connected to them or how much pleasure we derive from them. Consequentialism is the position that morality is determined by the outcome of good or bad consequences caused by a person's actions. All rights reserved. Do not sell or share my personal information, 1. (Though, most versions of non-consequentialism allow some ethical relevance of consequences). The effects of a person's actions judge if it was right or wrong. 2020 Feb;27(1):258-272. doi: 10.1177/0969733019832941. Youve read one of your four complimentary articles for this month. Ethics Med Public Health. Consequentialism is a theory that says whether something is good or bad depends on its outcomes. New technology may provide the answer. Relationships among moral reasoning, coping style, and ethics stress. Accessed March 28, 2017. Consequentialism And Abortion. The consequentialism theory suggests that the correct moral response is related to the . Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Robert Torrance continues a debate, started by Charlotte Blease in an earlier issue of the Journal of Medical Ethics, about what conditions must be met in order for patients to consent to receive electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) ( see page 371 ). Published November 9, 2017. Implementing machine learning in health careaddressing ethical challenges. However, despite these efforts, the oppressing side ignores the foreign powers efforts. This document is part of a series of papers intended to introduce The issue here is that the advantages cannot balance out the likelihood of harm that would exist at the end of the day. There is important reason for the root word. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. Accessed May 24, 2018. Automated depression diagnosis based on facial dynamic analysis and sparse coding. Consequentialism is a normative ethical theory, which means, it is a theory about ethical action and a proposed method for deciding how one should choose the right ethical act. 8600 Rockville Pike He said, she said: Investigating the Christian Porter Case. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the Indians himself. Viewed from a consequentialist perspective, one of the primary purposes of an organizational ethics program is to ensure that the organization is not penalized for the actions of its individual employees and to avoid the bad consequences that might result from such actions (e.g., fines, lawsuits, etc). When making ethical decisions within healthcare, the patients must have a clear channel of communication between the health care provider and the patient, as without this the patients wished cannot be taken into consideration. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology, Physical Education and Health Education Faculty. J Med Ethics. Is it okay to do bad things for a good cause? Instead, it is being driven by patients, who are increasingly turning into consumers. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. 1992 Fall;21(4):354-89. Our duty to others can be illustrated using another example, one used by contemporary utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer. Careers. By signing up you agree to our privacy policy. John Stuart Mill, a student of Benthams, disagreed. The lack of respect for the integrity of the individual is raised by Bernard Williams famous Jim and the Indians thought experiment, quoted above. Brostoff G. 3D facial recognition gives healthcare data a new look. Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad. government site. P2. In this example: A hospital has limited capacity to deal with Covid-19 patients and is having to decide between admitting a 20 year old patient, who is fit and well, and a 75 year old patient, who has a history of heart disease, to their last available ventilator. In one moment Jim goes from being a tourist in a foreign country to becoming a murderer for the sake of morality. In this way, consequentialism ethics provide criteria for the moral evaluation of actions, while also recommending rules or decision-making criteria for future actions. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. Using the example of Jim and the Indians, Williams successfully illustrates that consequentialism fails to respect the integrity of the individual because in deciding what is wrong or right what really matters is not the action but the outcome of it. A heavy man in a sweat-stained khaki shirt turns out to be the captain in charge and, after a good deal of questioning of Jim which establishes that he got there by accident while on a botanical expedition, explains that the Indians are a random group of the inhabitants who, after recent acts of protest against the government, are just about to be killed to remind other possible protestors of the advantages of not protesting. Q: Roe v. Wade may soon be overturned by the Supreme Court, while at the same time other countries are loosening restrictions around abortion rights. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Accessed April 8, 2017. Consequentialism From a consequentialist position the question of whether it is wrong to breach confidentiality is determined by the consequences of the breach. An example of consequentialism is utilitarianism. National Library of Medicine LinkedIn and 3rd parties use essential and non-essential cookies to provide, secure, analyze and improve our Services, and (except on the iOS app) to show you relevant ads (including professional and job ads) on and off LinkedIn. Some machine learning systems need continuous data input to train and improve the algorithms22 in a process that could be analogized to quality improvement research, for which informed consent is not regarded as necessary.23 For example, to improve its algorithms, FRT for genetic diagnosis would need to receive new data sets of images of patients already known to have specific genetic disorders.2 To maintain trust and transparency with patients, organizations should consider involving relevant community stakeholders in implementing FRT and in decisions about establishing and improving practices of informing patients about the organizations use of FRT. We will have to remember as a society that, of all the things a person might do at any given moment, the morally right action is the one with the best overall consequences. As the saga unfolds we are to monitor, measure and maximise the consequences for the greater good of the larger number. Is a theory of moral obligation their proponent puts it forth as a framework within which a person can correctly determine, on any given occasion, what he or she (morally) ought to do [ 2 ]. Core values versus common sense: consequentialist views appear less rooted in morality. Data Lab. PMC For the consequentialist it is obvious that the right choice for Jim would be to kill one Indian in order to save the lives of the other nineteen. Subsequent actions are mediated though ethical decision-making frames of reference including deontology, consequentialism, the ethics of care and virtue ethics. Consequentialism Ethics Consequentialism focus on the outcome or consequence of the actions. Beneficence and non-maleficence to weigh out the benefits and the duty of doing no harm to subsequently consider what is in the patient's best interest. As Peter Railton says: The alienation of some individuals or groups from their milieu may at times be necessary for fundamental social criticism or cultural innovation (Alienation, Consequentialism and the Demands of Morality, Philosophy and Public Affairs 1984). In other words, the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or welfare. 110-233, 122 Stat 881. Conseque. Is it better to give my money to charity or spend it studying medicine so I can save lives? Why facial recognition is the future of diagnostics. He is likely to have his own commitments in which murder (rather than letting others die) would go against his most fundamental beliefs. _____ ethics looks to the nature of relationships to guide participants in making difficult decisions. Consequentialism entails that we can be held morally responsible for a lack of action, and whilst the case of the drowning child shows that it is possible to be indirectly responsible by not acting, in cases like Jims it involves going further than can be reasonably expected. Perhaps it can in some way be quantified, so that if carrying out some act would damage the integrity of the individual so grievously that the maximum utility could be reached only if they failed to act, then not acting would be the right thing to do. Virtue ethics: focusing on the moral character, or . Julian Savulescu and Dominic Wilkinson 2019. Accessed October 26, 2018. 2020 Jun;27(4):1032-1043. doi: 10.1177/0969733020906594. Consumerism in healthcare is not merely about supporting hospitals, insurance companies and other businesses. The most famous version of non-consequentialism is deontology, which holds that one has an absolute duty to obey certain rules. This makes consequentialist theories very demanding on the agent involved. PHI 204 - Ethical Issues in Health Care: Consequentialism, Deontology 1. The most famous version of this theory is utilitarianism. Maximizing Consequentialism = moral rightness depends only on which consequences are best (as opposed to satisfactory or an improvement over the status quo). (Feiser) Consequentialism says that the consequences of an action are all that matter when taking an ethical decision to act. Human behavior prediction using facial expression analysis. Key considerations included nursing's moral ontology, the nurse-patient relationship, potential impact on the profession, ethical principles and theories, moral culpability for acts versus omissions, the role of intention and the nature of the society in which euthanasia would be enacted. Religion plays a large part in the ethical issue of abortion, just like with . Findings: The desire to save people's lives sometimes does not allow doctors to understand that some patients want the opposite. Never kill an innocent person or never lie are examples of such rules. Ethical theories (1) The correct moral decision or response is made by: Consequentialism: considering the outcomes, or consequences, of the act, NOT its intentions or motives. As with any clinical innovation, FRT tools should be expected to demonstrate accuracy for specific uses and to demonstrate that overall benefits outweigh risks.26 Detecting and evaluating bias in data and results should also receive close ethical scrutiny.27 In machine learning, the quality of the results reflects the quality of data input to the system28an issue sometimes referred to as garbage in, garbage out. For example, when images used to train software are not drawn from a pool that is sufficiently racially diverse, the system may produce racially biased results.29 If this happens, FRT diagnostics might not work as well for some racial or ethnic groups as others. In this particular case, a foreign power decides to hear the cries of the oppressed and begins to lend its diplomatic and political support to make a moral claim for whatever sort of intervention to resolve the conflict. Immanuel Kant started developing deontology after he was inspired by the movement called the Enlightenment, which emphasized human reason and individual autonomy. Brittany Hollister, PhD and Vence L. Bonham, JD, Ethical Dimensions of Using Artificial Intelligence in Health Care. Consequentialism Consequentialism is a type of teleological theory -- consequentialist theories suggest that the moral value, the moral rightness or wrongness of an act, is entirely a function of the consequences, or the results of that act. Should Electronic Health Record-Derived Social and Behavioral Data Be Used in Precision Medicine Research? By accepting, you agree to the updated privacy policy. Tap here to review the details. Killing the one Indian is going to have a profound effect on Jims life but for the consequentialist, Jims values are irrelevant. Bina RW, Langevin JP. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. government site. Biom Technol Today. A person should do whatever leads to the best consequence. It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma: A person should choose the action that maximises good consequences. Should Watson Be Consulted for a Second Opinion? Int J Environ Res Public Health. Healthcare workers often face a problem of decision - making. Privacy and data protection are thought to present challenges for the use of FRT for health applications. Published April 25, 2018. The word deontology derives from the Greek words for duty ( deon) and science (or study) of ( logos ). Epub 2014 Sep 24. To identify the values, beliefs and contextual influences that inform decision-making. Medical law exists at the intersection between consequentialism and deontology. July 2, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html. Applying Utilitarianism in Business. Now we will look at an example of how utilitarianism may be used in a medical context. Complex and expensive treatment options have increased the frequency and emphasis of ethical decision-making in healthcare. It emphasises four key ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, which are shared by most ethical theories, and blends these with virtues and practical wisdom. Some statutes that protect health information might not apply to FRT. In practice this a very difficult thing to do to step outside of the values we have been brought up with and the state of being alienated itself often causes unhappiness within the individual. A requirement to uphold the confidentiality of information shared in the physician-patient relationship is a central tenet of medical professionalism that, while at risk and undermined in various ways in modern medicine [1], has been consistently endorsed from the time of Hippocrates. One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.. The .gov means its official. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. Of course, if Jim refuses, then there is no special occasion, and Pedro here will do what he was about to do when Jim arrived, and kill them all The men against the wall and the other villagers understand the situation, and are obviously begging him to accept. With a little help from Batman, Hank explains the principle of utility, and the d For more information on consequentialism and utilitarianism follow the links below: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-political/, https://ethics.org.au/ethics-explainer-consequentialism/, All Content is the property of Keerut Oberai unless stated otherwise or an external link.Made with Squarespace. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal But as previously stated, war and the strife and chaos that comes with it are undesirable; however, in this particular circumstance something that may be bad as war can be said to be a for a good cause. 2016 May;23(3):265-76. doi: 10.1177/0969733014564101. . (2). Int J Lang Commun Disord. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted In this case, they would argue that welfare would be maximised by giving the last ventilator to the 20 year old. Philosophy , Volume 56 , Issue 218 , October 1981 , pp. 2000 Mar;2(1):29-41. Front Psychol. For example, if I have the choice between saving one of my two cats, Benjy and Oliver, from a house fire, I should save the cat that would produce the most utility over the other one. The first ethical theory we will look at more closely is consequentialism. Utilitarianism in this instance appears to give the morally incorrect answer. Given its insistence on summing the benefits and harms of all people, utilitarianism asks us to look beyond self-interest to consider impartially the interests of all persons affected by our actions.
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